While some of these images are accurate, others are misconceptions. There is much more to the story. The word “viking” comes from the Old Norse word víkingr and is often translated to mean “pirate” or “raider.” Today, the term is used to describe the people who lived in Scandinavia between the eighth and 11th centuries. Originally from Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, the Vikings settled in Finland, Iceland, Greenland, France, Russia, the Middle East, Britain, and Ireland.

While historians are unsure of the reason for Viking expansion outside of Scandinavia, we know that the climate was harsh, food was scarce, and tribal warfare was rampant. The Vikings’ tactics and technology would help them to expand their civilization and strike fear across medieval Europe for more than three hundred years.

During the medieval period, the kingdoms of Europe were constantly at war with each other, and the Vikings capitalized on this by preying on communities left undefended. Monasteries, for example, were often vulnerable and ideal targets because they contained valuable religious relics. In 793 CE, Vikings plundered the Northumbrian island monastery of St. Cuthbert’s at Lindisfarne, sending shockwaves through England and mainland Europe. Historical accounts describe how the Vikings killed monks, pillaged religious artifacts, and disrespected the shrine to Saint Cuthbert.

In a letter written to the king of Northumbria weeks after the attack, the English scholar and church leader Alcuin declared, “Never before has such terror appeared in Britain as we have now suffered from a pagan race, nor was it thought that such an inroad from the sea could be made.”

While raiding was a means for Vikings to grow their wealth and territory, it was not a full-time job. In the fall and winter, when the seas were too dangerous to cross, Vikings would return to their communities to tend to their farms, conduct trade, and build ships.

Viking longships were a technological wonder of the Middle Ages. Powered by oars, wind, and sail, longships were strong enough to hold dozens of men and make dangerous transatlantic crossings. At the same time, they were light and swift enough to sail up the shallow rivers of mainland Europe.

Estimated to be built within six months, longships had a unique design consisting of a long, narrow shape. The design prevented their ships from being stranded in shallow water and kept the inside of their boats watertight. Longships also could be easily lifted and dragged across land.

From the coastline, people could spot Viking ships by the carved dragon heads or snakes at the prow. These carvings served as a form of protection from other raiders, sea monsters, and the elements while also showing wealth and status. The Vikings were also renowned for their navigation skills. They didn’t need maps or compasses; instead, they used the nature around them, looking at the position of the stars and the sun and noting the direction of the wind. Because of their superior craftsmanship, the Vikings were able to expand their territory and explore the wider world.

Erik the Red (or Erik Thorvaldsson)

The founder of Greenland’s first Norse settlement, Erik earned his nickname due to his fiery red hair and equally fiery temper. Originally from Norway, Erik’s family was forced into exile after his father committed murder. While living in Iceland, Erik himself was accused of murder, forcing his family to uproot once again. It was on this voyage that he landed in Greenland, and he encouraged other Vikings to settle there.


Leif Erikson

The son of Erik the Red, Leif made his mark on history by potentially setting foot on North America five hundred years before Christopher Columbus. Today, it is still unclear how Leif made this journey. One story suggests that after sailing off course on his way to Greenland, he accidentally found what he called “Vinland,” or Vineland, named on account of the abundance of grapes and the fertile land. In another story, an Icelandic trader told him of a land in the west, prompting him to set course. While the exact location of Vinland is unclear, the discovery of Viking ruins in Canada in the 1960s has led many historians to believe that Leif landed in what is now known as modern-day Newfoundland.


Cnut, the Viking King of England

Born a prince of Denmark around 990, Cnut came to power in 1016 after leading one of the largest Viking conquests against England. Before this, England had been subjected to numerous Viking raids and political turmoil. Under Cnut’s leadership, England became a more stable and peaceful place. He would later name himself the king of Denmark, Norway, and “some of the Swedes,” successfully uniting Viking communities across Scandinavia. A convert to Christianity, Cnut was the first Viking leader to be acknowledged by the pope as a Christian king.

Life for most Viking women centered around the household, family, and the farm. But from the moment her husband went off on an excursion, not to return for months, the wife was in charge. Archeological evidence suggests that women were also the producers of textiles and other goods. They often sold their goods at markets, establishing them as entrepreneurs in their communities.

Viking women were not on equal footing with men, but they did possess freedoms unavailable to most women in European medieval society. They could initiate divorce proceedings, own property, and work in a trade. If a husband died, the wife could adopt his role as head of the house permanently.

While there are some historical legends of female warriors, or shield-maidens, Viking women were most certainly queens, noblewomen, explorers, settlers, and shamans known as seeresses. Excavations of Viking burial mounds have led to the discovery of female skeletons adorned with rings and keys, which are widely believed to be symbols of wealth and power. In Oseberg, Norway, the largest burial mound ever uncovered included an intricately decorated longship with a possible queen as its passenger. Women often accompanied men on expeditions and were vital to the formation of new settlements.

One of the most famous female Viking settlers was Aud the Deep-Minded. The daughter of a military commander and wife to the Viking king of Dublin, Aud was no stranger to the warrior way of life. After her husband and son were killed in battle, Aud secretly commissioned the construction of a longship to bring her family and slaves to Iceland. Aud captained the ship herself, commanding a crew of twenty men. Once in Iceland, she claimed territory, freed her slaves, and converted to Christianity.

Most of European society had converted to Christianity by the eighth century, but many Vikings held on to their Old Norse pagan belief system for another two hundred years. They worshiped many gods and goddesses who lived in a place called Asgard. According to their mythology, humans lived in Midgard, or Middle Earth. Vikings also believed in seven other realms that were home to different mythical creatures, including giants, dwarves, and elves. Vikings legends tell of the interactions between the gods and mythical creatures, including many battles.

ODIN
The ruler of the Norse gods and god of war, death, and knowledge, Odin presided over Valhalla, a majestic hall reserved only for Viking warriors who had died in battle. He would send female warriors, known as Valkyries, to the battlefields to determine who was worthy of a place in Valhalla.

THOR
Considered the strongest of the gods, Thor was regarded as the protector of the Viking people. Some of the most famous stories about him include the creation of thunder and battling evil giants with his hammer, Mjölnir.

LOKI
Known as the shapeshifting god of trickery, mischief, and deception, Loki was not fully good or evil but brought chaos wherever he went. He was a companion to Odin and Thor and helped them, though sometimes his plans did not end well.

FREY AND FREYJA
The children of the sea god, Njord, Freya was the goddess of love, beauty, wealth, and fertility. Frey, her brother, was affiliated with fertility as well as the sun, rain, and the harvest.

By the close of the 11th century, the Viking way of life was coming to an end. After being beaten in battle by English forces in 1066, the Vikings never succeeded in launching another large-scale invasion of Europe. A century later, theScandinavian kingdoms had converted to Christianity, and the Viking community assimilated into the larger European culture. The age of Vikings has long passed, but their conquests, inventions, and mythology continue to fascinate and shape our world today.